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Introduction to Philosophy
Characteristics of a Philosophical Problem
Abstract: A working definition of philosophy is proposed and
a few philosophical problems are illustrated.
Some general comments about the nature of philosophy can
be summarized from the previous tutorial.
Etymologically, "philosophy" can be broken into the
following roots and examples.
philo—fond of, affinity for; e.g.,
the name "Philip" means "lover of
horses."
sophia—wisdom; e.g., the name
"Sophie" means "wisdom."
Hazarding a beginning definition and some general
characteristics of philosophy might be of help.
Philosophy is the systematic inquiry into the
principles and presuppositions of any endeavor.
Some restaurants have printed on the back of the
customer's bill their philosophy of restaurant management.
Recently, philosophy of sport, medical ethics,
and ethics of genetics have generated much interest.
In general, philosophy questions often are a series of
"why-questions," whereas science is often said
to ask "how-questions."
E.g., asking "Why did you come to class today?"
is the beginning of a series of why-questions which ultimately
lead to the answer of the principles or presuppositions by which
you lead your life.
I.e., Answer: "To pass the course."
Question: "Why do you want to pass the course?"
Answer: "To graduate from college."
Question: "Why do you want to graduate?"
Answer: "To get a good job."
Question: "Why do you want a good job?"
Answer: "To make lots of money."
Question: "Why do you want to make money?"
Answer: "To be happy."
Hence, one comes to class in order to increase the chances for
happiness.
Avrum Stroll and Richard H. Popkin, in their highly readable book,
Introduction to Philosophy, isolate seven characteristics of a
philosophical problem. These characteristics serve as a good introduction
to mark some of the perplexing kinds of problems which can arise
in philosophy.
Philosophical Thought-Experiments from Metaphysics and
Epistemology
Characteristics
Typical Examples
1. A reflection about the world and the things in it.
If I take a book off my hand, what's left on my hand? If
I take away the air, then what's left? If I take away the
space? Does everything exist in nothing?
2. A conceptual rather than a practical activity.
According to Newton's gravitation theory, as the ballerina
an a New York stage moves, my balance is affected.
3. The use of reason and argumentation to establish a
point.
Does a tree falling in a forest with no one around to
hear it, make a sound? To solve, we distinguish two senses
of "sound": (1) hearing—a phenomenological
perception and (2) vibration—a longintudinal wave
in matter.
4. An explanation of the puzzling features of things.
Does a mirror reverse left and right? If I move my right
hand, the image's left hand moves. But why then doesn't the
mirror reverse up and down? Why aren't the image's feet at the
top of the mirror?
5. Digging beyond the obvious.
What is a fact. In science, facts are collected. Is a book
a fact? Is it a big or little fact? Is it a brown fact? If
facts don't have size, shape, and color, then how do they exist
in the world?
6. The search for principles which underlie phenomena.
Is a geranium one flower or is it a combination of many small
flowers bunched together? If I turn on a computer, am I doing
one action or many different actions.
7. Theory building from these principles.
Is nature discrete or continuous?e.g., Zeno's paradoxes
of motion. If you are to leave the classroom today, isn't it true
that you will have to walk at least half-way to the door? And then
when you get half-way, you will have to at least walk another half?
How many "halves" are there? How will you ever get out?
In practice, philosophy is an attitude, an approach, or even a calling
to answer, to ask, or to comment upon certain peculiar kinds of questions.
As we saw previously, the problems are often
relegated to the subdivisions of philosophy: Epistemology, Metaphysics, and
Axiology (Ethics and Æsthetics).
Attitude—a curiosity arising from questions such as the
following.
Under the assumption that time is a dimension just like any other,
the case of the problem of the surprise examination can arise:
Suppose students obtain the promise from their teacher that a surprise
quiz scheduled be given next week will not be given, if the students
demonstrate how they can know, in advance, the day the teacher will
give the exam. Thus, the students can argue as follows: Assuming the
class meets only on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, the students know
the surprise exam cannot be given on Friday because everyone would
know Thursday night that the folowing day is the only period left in
which to give the exam. One would think that the teacher could give
the exam Wednesday, but since Friday has been eliminated as a possibility,
on Tuesday night, the students would know that the only period left
in the week would be Wednesday (since Friday has already been eliminated;
hence, the exam could not be given Wednesday either. Monday, then, is
the only possible period left to offer the exam. But, of course, the
teacher could not give the exam Monday because the students would expect
the exam that day. Consequently, the teacher cannot give a surprise
examination next week.
In his Nobel
Prize Lecture, Richard Feynman explained that from the perspective
of quantum electrodynamics, if an electron is seen as going forward in
time, a positron is the same particle moving backwards in time. Is time-
reversal really possible?
Is a positron, or even the earlier tachyon, discussed above,
associated with backward causation a possible event? Consider this
paradoxical result. Suppose a "positron gun" or a "tachyon
gun" would fire a particle going backward in time—it could
"trigger" an off-switch to turn off the gun before it could
be fired.
This example is, of course, a thought-experiment. As Feynman noted
in his
Lectures on Physics,
"Philosophers say a great deal about what is absolutely necessary
for science, and it is always, so far as one can see, rather naive, and
probably wrong.
Approach—to devise a methodology to answer such puzzles.
Very often, all that is needed is to invoke old maxim, "When there is
a difficulty, make a distinction."
E.g., for the problem of the sound of a tree falling in a
forest with no one around to hear, all we need do is distinguish two
different senses of "sound."
If by "sound" is meant a "phenomenological perception
by a subject," then no sound ("hearing") would occur.
If by "sound" is meant "a longitudinal wave in matter,"
then a sound is discoverable.
Calling— if a person has had experiences of curiosity,
discovery, and invention at an early age, these experiences could leave
an imprint on mind and character to last a lifetime.
Further Reading:
Backward
Causation. Jan Fey's entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
examines several paradoxes based on the notion where an effect temporally, but
not causally, precedes its cause.
Paradox. An extensive
reference list of paradoxes is summarized by topic in mathematics, logic,
practice, philosophy, psychology, physics and economics with links to more
extensive discussion.
Unexpected
Hanging Paradox. Eric W. Weisstein provides another version of the
Surprise Examination Paradox with a list of further references.
"The "will to truth" that might be a concealed will to death." Friedrich Nietzsch, The Gay Science (1887).
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November 21 2008 05:35 EST
Cloud Chamber: Positron Trace
SITE SEARCH ENGINE
[an error occurred while processing this directive]
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since 01.01.06
Introduction to Philosophy
Characteristics of a Philosophical Problem
Abstract: A working definition of philosophy is proposed and
a few philosophical problems are illustrated.
Some general comments about the nature of philosophy can
be summarized from the previous tutorial.
Etymologically, "philosophy" can be broken into the
following roots and examples.
philo—fond of, affinity for; e.g.,
the name "Philip" means "lover of
horses."
sophia—wisdom; e.g., the name
"Sophie" means "wisdom."
Hazarding a beginning definition and some general
characteristics of philosophy might be of help.
Philosophy is the systematic inquiry into the
principles and presuppositions of any endeavor.
Some restaurants have printed on the back of the
customer's bill their philosophy of restaurant management.
Recently, philosophy of sport, medical ethics,
and ethics of genetics have generated much interest.
In general, philosophy questions often are a series of
"why-questions," whereas science is often said
to ask "how-questions."
E.g., asking "Why did you come to class today?"
is the beginning of a series of why-questions which ultimately
lead to the answer of the principles or presuppositions by which
you lead your life.
I.e., Answer: "To pass the course."
Question: "Why do you want to pass the course?"
Answer: "To graduate from college."
Question: "Why do you want to graduate?"
Answer: "To get a good job."
Question: "Why do you want a good job?"
Answer: "To make lots of money."
Question: "Why do you want to make money?"
Answer: "To be happy."
Hence, one comes to class in order to increase the chances for
happiness.
Avrum Stroll and Richard H. Popkin, in their highly readable book,
Introduction to Philosophy, isolate seven characteristics of a
philosophical problem. These characteristics serve as a good introduction
to mark some of the perplexing kinds of problems which can arise
in philosophy.
Philosophical Thought-Experiments from Metaphysics and
Epistemology
Characteristics
Typical Examples
1. A reflection about the world and the things in it.
If I take a book off my hand, what's left on my hand? If
I take away the air, then what's left? If I take away the
space? Does everything exist in nothing?
2. A conceptual rather than a practical activity.
According to Newton's gravitation theory, as the ballerina
an a New York stage moves, my balance is affected.
3. The use of reason and argumentation to establish a
point.
Does a tree falling in a forest with no one around to
hear it, make a sound? To solve, we distinguish two senses
of "sound": (1) hearing—a phenomenological
perception and (2) vibration—a longintudinal wave
in matter.
4. An explanation of the puzzling features of things.
Does a mirror reverse left and right? If I move my right
hand, the image's left hand moves. But why then doesn't the
mirror reverse up and down? Why aren't the image's feet at the
top of the mirror?
5. Digging beyond the obvious.
What is a fact. In science, facts are collected. Is a book
a fact? Is it a big or little fact? Is it a brown fact? If
facts don't have size, shape, and color, then how do they exist
in the world?
6. The search for principles which underlie phenomena.
Is a geranium one flower or is it a combination of many small
flowers bunched together? If I turn on a computer, am I doing
one action or many different actions.
7. Theory building from these principles.
Is nature discrete or continuous?e.g., Zeno's paradoxes
of motion. If you are to leave the classroom today, isn't it true
that you will have to walk at least half-way to the door? And then
when you get half-way, you will have to at least walk another half?
How many "halves" are there? How will you ever get out?
In practice, philosophy is an attitude, an approach, or even a calling
to answer, to ask, or to comment upon certain peculiar kinds of questions.
As we saw previously, the problems are often
relegated to the subdivisions of philosophy: Epistemology, Metaphysics, and
Axiology (Ethics and Æsthetics).
Attitude—a curiosity arising from questions such as the
following.
Under the assumption that time is a dimension just like any other,
the case of the problem of the surprise examination can arise:
Suppose students obtain the promise from their teacher that a surprise
quiz scheduled be given next week will not be given, if the students
demonstrate how they can know, in advance, the day the teacher will
give the exam. Thus, the students can argue as follows: Assuming the
class meets only on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, the students know
the surprise exam cannot be given on Friday because everyone would
know Thursday night that the folowing day is the only period left in
which to give the exam. One would think that the teacher could give
the exam Wednesday, but since Friday has been eliminated as a possibility,
on Tuesday night, the students would know that the only period left
in the week would be Wednesday (since Friday has already been eliminated;
hence, the exam could not be given Wednesday either. Monday, then, is
the only possible period left to offer the exam. But, of course, the
teacher could not give the exam Monday because the students would expect
the exam that day. Consequently, the teacher cannot give a surprise
examination next week.
In his Nobel
Prize Lecture, Richard Feynman explained that from the perspective
of quantum electrodynamics, if an electron is seen as going forward in
time, a positron is the same particle moving backwards in time. Is time-
reversal really possible?
Is a positron, or even the earlier tachyon, discussed above,
associated with backward causation a possible event? Consider this
paradoxical result. Suppose a "positron gun" or a "tachyon
gun" would fire a particle going backward in time—it could
"trigger" an off-switch to turn off the gun before it could
be fired.
This example is, of course, a thought-experiment. As Feynman noted
in his
Lectures on Physics,
"Philosophers say a great deal about what is absolutely necessary
for science, and it is always, so far as one can see, rather naive, and
probably wrong.
Approach—to devise a methodology to answer such puzzles.
Very often, all that is needed is to invoke old maxim, "When there is
a difficulty, make a distinction."
E.g., for the problem of the sound of a tree falling in a
forest with no one around to hear, all we need do is distinguish two
different senses of "sound."
If by "sound" is meant a "phenomenological perception
by a subject," then no sound ("hearing") would occur.
If by "sound" is meant "a longitudinal wave in matter,"
then a sound is discoverable.
Calling— if a person has had experiences of curiosity,
discovery, and invention at an early age, these experiences could leave
an imprint on mind and character to last a lifetime.
Further Reading:
Backward
Causation. Jan Fey's entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
examines several paradoxes based on the notion where an effect temporally, but
not causally, precedes its cause.
Paradox. An extensive
reference list of paradoxes is summarized by topic in mathematics, logic,
practice, philosophy, psychology, physics and economics with links to more
extensive discussion.
Unexpected
Hanging Paradox. Eric W. Weisstein provides another version of the
Surprise Examination Paradox with a list of further references.
"Truth is the kind of error without which a certain species of life could not live. The value for life is ultimately decisive." Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power (1885).
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November 21 2008 05:35 EST
Cloud Chamber: Positron Trace
SITE SEARCH ENGINE
[an error occurred while processing this directive]
[an error occurred while processing this directive]
since 01.01.06
Introduction to Philosophy
Characteristics of a Philosophical Problem
Abstract: A working definition of philosophy is proposed and
a few philosophical problems are illustrated.
Some general comments about the nature of philosophy can
be summarized from the previous tutorial.
Etymologically, "philosophy" can be broken into the
following roots and examples.
philo—fond of, affinity for; e.g.,
the name "Philip" means "lover of
horses."
sophia—wisdom; e.g., the name
"Sophie" means "wisdom."
Hazarding a beginning definition and some general
characteristics of philosophy might be of help.
Philosophy is the systematic inquiry into the
principles and presuppositions of any endeavor.
Some restaurants have printed on the back of the
customer's bill their philosophy of restaurant management.
Recently, philosophy of sport, medical ethics,
and ethics of genetics have generated much interest.
In general, philosophy questions often are a series of
"why-questions," whereas science is often said
to ask "how-questions."
E.g., asking "Why did you come to class today?"
is the beginning of a series of why-questions which ultimately
lead to the answer of the principles or presuppositions by which
you lead your life.
I.e., Answer: "To pass the course."
Question: "Why do you want to pass the course?"
Answer: "To graduate from college."
Question: "Why do you want to graduate?"
Answer: "To get a good job."
Question: "Why do you want a good job?"
Answer: "To make lots of money."
Question: "Why do you want to make money?"
Answer: "To be happy."
Hence, one comes to class in order to increase the chances for
happiness.
Avrum Stroll and Richard H. Popkin, in their highly readable book,
Introduction to Philosophy, isolate seven characteristics of a
philosophical problem. These characteristics serve as a good introduction
to mark some of the perplexing kinds of problems which can arise
in philosophy.
Philosophical Thought-Experiments from Metaphysics and
Epistemology
Characteristics
Typical Examples
1. A reflection about the world and the things in it.
If I take a book off my hand, what's left on my hand? If
I take away the air, then what's left? If I take away the
space? Does everything exist in nothing?
2. A conceptual rather than a practical activity.
According to Newton's gravitation theory, as the ballerina
an a New York stage moves, my balance is affected.
3. The use of reason and argumentation to establish a
point.
Does a tree falling in a forest with no one around to
hear it, make a sound? To solve, we distinguish two senses
of "sound": (1) hearing—a phenomenological
perception and (2) vibration—a longintudinal wave
in matter.
4. An explanation of the puzzling features of things.
Does a mirror reverse left and right? If I move my right
hand, the image's left hand moves. But why then doesn't the
mirror reverse up and down? Why aren't the image's feet at the
top of the mirror?
5. Digging beyond the obvious.
What is a fact. In science, facts are collected. Is a book
a fact? Is it a big or little fact? Is it a brown fact? If
facts don't have size, shape, and color, then how do they exist
in the world?
6. The search for principles which underlie phenomena.
Is a geranium one flower or is it a combination of many small
flowers bunched together? If I turn on a computer, am I doing
one action or many different actions.
7. Theory building from these principles.
Is nature discrete or continuous?e.g., Zeno's paradoxes
of motion. If you are to leave the classroom today, isn't it true
that you will have to walk at least half-way to the door? And then
when you get half-way, you will have to at least walk another half?
How many "halves" are there? How will you ever get out?
In practice, philosophy is an attitude, an approach, or even a calling
to answer, to ask, or to comment upon certain peculiar kinds of questions.
As we saw previously, the problems are often
relegated to the subdivisions of philosophy: Epistemology, Metaphysics, and
Axiology (Ethics and Æsthetics).
Attitude—a curiosity arising from questions such as the
following.
Under the assumption that time is a dimension just like any other,
the case of the problem of the surprise examination can arise:
Suppose students obtain the promise from their teacher that a surprise
quiz scheduled be given next week will not be given, if the students
demonstrate how they can know, in advance, the day the teacher will
give the exam. Thus, the students can argue as follows: Assuming the
class meets only on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, the students know
the surprise exam cannot be given on Friday because everyone would
know Thursday night that the folowing day is the only period left in
which to give the exam. One would think that the teacher could give
the exam Wednesday, but since Friday has been eliminated as a possibility,
on Tuesday night, the students would know that the only period left
in the week would be Wednesday (since Friday has already been eliminated;
hence, the exam could not be given Wednesday either. Monday, then, is
the only possible period left to offer the exam. But, of course, the
teacher could not give the exam Monday because the students would expect
the exam that day. Consequently, the teacher cannot give a surprise
examination next week.
In his Nobel
Prize Lecture, Richard Feynman explained that from the perspective
of quantum electrodynamics, if an electron is seen as going forward in
time, a positron is the same particle moving backwards in time. Is time-
reversal really possible?
Is a positron, or even the earlier tachyon, discussed above,
associated with backward causation a possible event? Consider this
paradoxical result. Suppose a "positron gun" or a "tachyon
gun" would fire a particle going backward in time—it could
"trigger" an off-switch to turn off the gun before it could
be fired.
This example is, of course, a thought-experiment. As Feynman noted
in his
Lectures on Physics,
"Philosophers say a great deal about what is absolutely necessary
for science, and it is always, so far as one can see, rather naive, and
probably wrong.
Approach—to devise a methodology to answer such puzzles.
Very often, all that is needed is to invoke old maxim, "When there is
a difficulty, make a distinction."
E.g., for the problem of the sound of a tree falling in a
forest with no one around to hear, all we need do is distinguish two
different senses of "sound."
If by "sound" is meant a "phenomenological perception
by a subject," then no sound ("hearing") would occur.
If by "sound" is meant "a longitudinal wave in matter,"
then a sound is discoverable.
Calling— if a person has had experiences of curiosity,
discovery, and invention at an early age, these experiences could leave
an imprint on mind and character to last a lifetime.
Further Reading:
Backward
Causation. Jan Fey's entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
examines several paradoxes based on the notion where an effect temporally, but
not causally, precedes its cause.
Paradox. An extensive
reference list of paradoxes is summarized by topic in mathematics, logic,
practice, philosophy, psychology, physics and economics with links to more
extensive discussion.
Unexpected
Hanging Paradox. Eric W. Weisstein provides another version of the
Surprise Examination Paradox with a list of further references.
"There is a logic of language and a logic of mathematics. The former is supple and lifelike, it follows our experience. The latter is abstract and rigid, more ideal. The latter is perfectly necessary, perfectly reliable: the former is only sometimes reliable and hardly ever systematic. But the logic of mathematics achieves necessity at the expense of living truth, it is less real than the other, although more certain. It achieves certainty by a flight from the concrete into abstraction. Doubtless, to an idealist, this would seem to be a more perfect reality. I am not an idealist. The logic of the poet—that is, the logic of language or the experience itself—develops the way a living organism grows: it spreads out towards what it loves, and is heliotropic, like a plant." Thomas Merton, Secular Journal (1959).
Abstract: A working definition of philosophy is proposed and
a few philosophical problems are illustrated.
Some general comments about the nature of philosophy can
be summarized from the previous tutorial.
Etymologically, "philosophy" can be broken into the
following roots and examples.
philo—fond of, affinity for; e.g.,
the name "Philip" means "lover of
horses."
sophia—wisdom; e.g., the name
"Sophie" means "wisdom."
Hazarding a beginning definition and some general
characteristics of philosophy might be of help.
Philosophy is the systematic inquiry into the
principles and presuppositions of any endeavor.
Some restaurants have printed on the back of the
customer's bill their philosophy of restaurant management.
Recently, philosophy of sport, medical ethics,
and ethics of genetics have generated much interest.
In general, philosophy questions often are a series of
"why-questions," whereas science is often said
to ask "how-questions."
E.g., asking "Why did you come to class today?"
is the beginning of a series of why-questions which ultimately
lead to the answer of the principles or presuppositions by which
you lead your life.
I.e., Answer: "To pass the course."
Question: "Why do you want to pass the course?"
Answer: "To graduate from college."
Question: "Why do you want to graduate?"
Answer: "To get a good job."
Question: "Why do you want a good job?"
Answer: "To make lots of money."
Question: "Why do you want to make money?"
Answer: "To be happy."
Hence, one comes to class in order to increase the chances for
happiness.
Avrum Stroll and Richard H. Popkin, in their highly readable book,
Introduction to Philosophy, isolate seven characteristics of a
philosophical problem. These characteristics serve as a good introduction
to mark some of the perplexing kinds of problems which can arise
in philosophy.
Philosophical Thought-Experiments from Metaphysics and
Epistemology
Characteristics
Typical Examples
1. A reflection about the world and the things in it.
If I take a book off my hand, what's left on my hand? If
I take away the air, then what's left? If I take away the
space? Does everything exist in nothing?
2. A conceptual rather than a practical activity.
According to Newton's gravitation theory, as the ballerina
an a New York stage moves, my balance is affected.
3. The use of reason and argumentation to establish a
point.
Does a tree falling in a forest with no one around to
hear it, make a sound? To solve, we distinguish two senses
of "sound": (1) hearing—a phenomenological
perception and (2) vibration—a longintudinal wave
in matter.
4. An explanation of the puzzling features of things.
Does a mirror reverse left and right? If I move my right
hand, the image's left hand moves. But why then doesn't the
mirror reverse up and down? Why aren't the image's feet at the
top of the mirror?
5. Digging beyond the obvious.
What is a fact. In science, facts are collected. Is a book
a fact? Is it a big or little fact? Is it a brown fact? If
facts don't have size, shape, and color, then how do they exist
in the world?
6. The search for principles which underlie phenomena.
Is a geranium one flower or is it a combination of many small
flowers bunched together? If I turn on a computer, am I doing
one action or many different actions.
7. Theory building from these principles.
Is nature discrete or continuous?e.g., Zeno's paradoxes
of motion. If you are to leave the classroom today, isn't it true
that you will have to walk at least half-way to the door? And then
when you get half-way, you will have to at least walk another half?
How many "halves" are there? How will you ever get out?
In practice, philosophy is an attitude, an approach, or even a calling
to answer, to ask, or to comment upon certain peculiar kinds of questions.
As we saw previously, the problems are often
relegated to the subdivisions of philosophy: Epistemology, Metaphysics, and
Axiology (Ethics and Æsthetics).
Attitude—a curiosity arising from questions such as the
following.
Under the assumption that time is a dimension just like any other,
the case of the problem of the surprise examination can arise:
Suppose students obtain the promise from their teacher that a surprise
quiz scheduled be given next week will not be given, if the students
demonstrate how they can know, in advance, the day the teacher will
give the exam. Thus, the students can argue as follows: Assuming the
class meets only on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, the students know
the surprise exam cannot be given on Friday because everyone would
know Thursday night that the folowing day is the only period left in
which to give the exam. One would think that the teacher could give
the exam Wednesday, but since Friday has been eliminated as a possibility,
on Tuesday night, the students would know that the only period left
in the week would be Wednesday (since Friday has already been eliminated;
hence, the exam could not be given Wednesday either. Monday, then, is
the only possible period left to offer the exam. But, of course, the
teacher could not give the exam Monday because the students would expect
the exam that day. Consequently, the teacher cannot give a surprise
examination next week.
In his Nobel
Prize Lecture, Richard Feynman explained that from the perspective
of quantum electrodynamics, if an electron is seen as going forward in
time, a positron is the same particle moving backwards in time. Is time-
reversal really possible?
Is a positron, or even the earlier tachyon, discussed above,
associated with backward causation a possible event? Consider this
paradoxical result. Suppose a "positron gun" or a "tachyon
gun" would fire a particle going backward in time—it could
"trigger" an off-switch to turn off the gun before it could
be fired.
This example is, of course, a thought-experiment. As Feynman noted
in his
Lectures on Physics,
"Philosophers say a great deal about what is absolutely necessary
for science, and it is always, so far as one can see, rather naive, and
probably wrong.
Approach—to devise a methodology to answer such puzzles.
Very often, all that is needed is to invoke old maxim, "When there is
a difficulty, make a distinction."
E.g., for the problem of the sound of a tree falling in a
forest with no one around to hear, all we need do is distinguish two
different senses of "sound."
If by "sound" is meant a "phenomenological perception
by a subject," then no sound ("hearing") would occur.
If by "sound" is meant "a longitudinal wave in matter,"
then a sound is discoverable.
Calling— if a person has had experiences of curiosity,
discovery, and invention at an early age, these experiences could leave
an imprint on mind and character to last a lifetime.
Further Reading:
Backward
Causation. Jan Fey's entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
examines several paradoxes based on the notion where an effect temporally, but
not causally, precedes its cause.
Paradox. An extensive
reference list of paradoxes is summarized by topic in mathematics, logic,
practice, philosophy, psychology, physics and economics with links to more
extensive discussion.
Unexpected
Hanging Paradox. Eric W. Weisstein provides another version of the
Surprise Examination Paradox with a list of further references.
"Earthly minds, like mud walls, resist the strongest batteries: and though, perhaps, sometimes the force of a clear argument may make some impression, yet they nevertheless stand firm, and keep out the enemy, truth, that would captivate or disturb them. Tell a man passionately in love, that he is jilted; bring a score of witnesses of the falsehood of his mistress, it is ten to one but three kind words of hers shall invalidate all their testimonies." John Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
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Cloud Chamber: Positron Trace
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Introduction to Philosophy
Characteristics of a Philosophical Problem
Abstract: A working definition of philosophy is proposed and
a few philosophical problems are illustrated.
Some general comments about the nature of philosophy can
be summarized from the previous tutorial.
Etymologically, "philosophy" can be broken into the
following roots and examples.
philo—fond of, affinity for; e.g.,
the name "Philip" means "lover of
horses."
sophia—wisdom; e.g., the name
"Sophie" means "wisdom."
Hazarding a beginning definition and some general
characteristics of philosophy might be of help.
Philosophy is the systematic inquiry into the
principles and presuppositions of any endeavor.
Some restaurants have printed on the back of the
customer's bill their philosophy of restaurant management.
Recently, philosophy of sport, medical ethics,
and ethics of genetics have generated much interest.
In general, philosophy questions often are a series of
"why-questions," whereas science is often said
to ask "how-questions."
E.g., asking "Why did you come to class today?"
is the beginning of a series of why-questions which ultimately
lead to the answer of the principles or presuppositions by which
you lead your life.
I.e., Answer: "To pass the course."
Question: "Why do you want to pass the course?"
Answer: "To graduate from college."
Question: "Why do you want to graduate?"
Answer: "To get a good job."
Question: "Why do you want a good job?"
Answer: "To make lots of money."
Question: "Why do you want to make money?"
Answer: "To be happy."
Hence, one comes to class in order to increase the chances for
happiness.
Avrum Stroll and Richard H. Popkin, in their highly readable book,
Introduction to Philosophy, isolate seven characteristics of a
philosophical problem. These characteristics serve as a good introduction
to mark some of the perplexing kinds of problems which can arise
in philosophy.
Philosophical Thought-Experiments from Metaphysics and
Epistemology
Characteristics
Typical Examples
1. A reflection about the world and the things in it.
If I take a book off my hand, what's left on my hand? If
I take away the air, then what's left? If I take away the
space? Does everything exist in nothing?
2. A conceptual rather than a practical activity.
According to Newton's gravitation theory, as the ballerina
an a New York stage moves, my balance is affected.
3. The use of reason and argumentation to establish a
point.
Does a tree falling in a forest with no one around to
hear it, make a sound? To solve, we distinguish two senses
of "sound": (1) hearing—a phenomenological
perception and (2) vibration—a longintudinal wave
in matter.
4. An explanation of the puzzling features of things.
Does a mirror reverse left and right? If I move my right
hand, the image's left hand moves. But why then doesn't the
mirror reverse up and down? Why aren't the image's feet at the
top of the mirror?
5. Digging beyond the obvious.
What is a fact. In science, facts are collected. Is a book
a fact? Is it a big or little fact? Is it a brown fact? If
facts don't have size, shape, and color, then how do they exist
in the world?
6. The search for principles which underlie phenomena.
Is a geranium one flower or is it a combination of many small
flowers bunched together? If I turn on a computer, am I doing
one action or many different actions.
7. Theory building from these principles.
Is nature discrete or continuous?e.g., Zeno's paradoxes
of motion. If you are to leave the classroom today, isn't it true
that you will have to walk at least half-way to the door? And then
when you get half-way, you will have to at least walk another half?
How many "halves" are there? How will you ever get out?
In practice, philosophy is an attitude, an approach, or even a calling
to answer, to ask, or to comment upon certain peculiar kinds of questions.
As we saw previously, the problems are often
relegated to the subdivisions of philosophy: Epistemology, Metaphysics, and
Axiology (Ethics and Æsthetics).
Attitude—a curiosity arising from questions such as the
following.
Under the assumption that time is a dimension just like any other,
the case of the problem of the surprise examination can arise:
Suppose students obtain the promise from their teacher that a surprise
quiz scheduled be given next week will not be given, if the students
demonstrate how they can know, in advance, the day the teacher will
give the exam. Thus, the students can argue as follows: Assuming the
class meets only on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, the students know
the surprise exam cannot be given on Friday because everyone would
know Thursday night that the folowing day is the only period left in
which to give the exam. One would think that the teacher could give
the exam Wednesday, but since Friday has been eliminated as a possibility,
on Tuesday night, the students would know that the only period left
in the week would be Wednesday (since Friday has already been eliminated;
hence, the exam could not be given Wednesday either. Monday, then, is
the only possible period left to offer the exam. But, of course, the
teacher could not give the exam Monday because the students would expect
the exam that day. Consequently, the teacher cannot give a surprise
examination next week.
In his Nobel
Prize Lecture, Richard Feynman explained that from the perspective
of quantum electrodynamics, if an electron is seen as going forward in
time, a positron is the same particle moving backwards in time. Is time-
reversal really possible?
Is a positron, or even the earlier tachyon, discussed above,
associated with backward causation a possible event? Consider this
paradoxical result. Suppose a "positron gun" or a "tachyon
gun" would fire a particle going backward in time—it could
"trigger" an off-switch to turn off the gun before it could
be fired.
This example is, of course, a thought-experiment. As Feynman noted
in his
Lectures on Physics,
"Philosophers say a great deal about what is absolutely necessary
for science, and it is always, so far as one can see, rather naive, and
probably wrong.
Approach—to devise a methodology to answer such puzzles.
Very often, all that is needed is to invoke old maxim, "When there is
a difficulty, make a distinction."
E.g., for the problem of the sound of a tree falling in a
forest with no one around to hear, all we need do is distinguish two
different senses of "sound."
If by "sound" is meant a "phenomenological perception
by a subject," then no sound ("hearing") would occur.
If by "sound" is meant "a longitudinal wave in matter,"
then a sound is discoverable.
Calling— if a person has had experiences of curiosity,
discovery, and invention at an early age, these experiences could leave
an imprint on mind and character to last a lifetime.
Further Reading:
Backward
Causation. Jan Fey's entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
examines several paradoxes based on the notion where an effect temporally, but
not causally, precedes its cause.
Paradox. An extensive
reference list of paradoxes is summarized by topic in mathematics, logic,
practice, philosophy, psychology, physics and economics with links to more
extensive discussion.
Unexpected
Hanging Paradox. Eric W. Weisstein provides another version of the
Surprise Examination Paradox with a list of further references.
"A religious creed differs from a scientific theory in claiming to embody eternal and absolutely certain truth, whereas science is always tentative, expecting that modification in its present theories will sooner or later be found necessary, and aware that its method is one which is logically incapable of arriving at a complete and final demonstration." Bertrand Russell, Religion and Science (1935).
