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Philosophy 302: Ethics
Kantian Ethics Abstract: Kant's notion of the good
will and the categorical imperative are very briefly sketched here.
Introduction: An attraction to the Kantian doctrines of
obligation is begun along the following lines:
(1) If the purpose of life were just to achieve happiness, then we
would all seek pleasure and gratification and hope that it would lead to
happiness. The problem is that happiness is not totally within our
power to achieve; to a large extent, happiness is a matter of luck.
(2) If we are to avoid nihilism and skepticism and our ethics is to
work, it must be unconditional (no exceptions) and universal (applicable
to all human beings).
I. The good will is the only good without qualification.
- The good will is a will that acts for the sake of duty,
as a "good-in-itself."
- Kant emphasizes these important considerations about duty:
- The class of actions in accordance with duty must be distinguished from
the class of actions performed for the sake of duty.
- Kant believes only actions performed for the sake of duty have moral worth. He
seems to suggest that the greater one's disinclination to act for the sake of
duty, the greater the moral worth of the action.
- If one performs an action by inclination, then that
action has no moral worth.
- Yet, isn't Aristotle correct
in his assessment of
the formation of character
through habit? Isn't it better to do things from inclination?
E.g.,
suppose an acquaintance has to struggle with himself not to start rumors about
you and is successful. Should his actions be valued more that an acquaintance
who is fair to you by habit?
- Or as Stace points out, "Isn't it better to
do one's duty cheerfully than begrudgingly?"
II. Duty is the necessity of acting out of reverence for universal law. Moral value
is essentially established by the intention of the person acting.
- Maxim: a particular directive, a subjective principle of volition (a principle
upon which you act). The nature of the maxim upon which an action is based is the
manner in which intentions are expressed.
- Hypothetical Imperative: a conditional maxim based on relative means/ends
in the everyday world or every-day circumstances. The goal is not based on pure reason
alone but usually upon desires. E.g., "If you want to be confident, then study hard."
- Categorical Imperative: a rule stating what ought to be done based upon pure reason
alone and not contingent upon sensible desires. "I am never to act otherwise than to will
that my maxim should become universal law."
- Moral rules, then, have no exceptions. Killing is always wrong. Lying is always
wrong.
- Ethics, then, is not based on consequences, as it is, for example in
utilitarianism. The consequences of our decisions are beyond our control.
- Is there a problem with event-description in pure practical reason? No two situations
in our experience are alike. How much of a difference makes a difference in the
application of the Categorical Imperative?
III. Practical Imperative: "Act to treat humanity, whether yourself or another, as an
end-in-itself and never as a means."
- Don't use people in order to obtain your goals or seek an edge or unfair
advantage.
- People have rights which would supercede, for example, the tyranny of the majority in
utilitarianism.
- How far should respect for persons proceed? What if you are constantly used by other
persons? Does the practical imperative imply that we should have no goals?
Recommended Sources
Kant
and Kantian Ethics: Extensive resources including multimedia, links to
online works, papers, and bibliography compiled by Lawrence M. Hinman at
the University of San Diego.
Kant's
Ethics: Reason and freedom,
the duality of the human situation, duty, and the good will by Matt
McCormick in the Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Kant's Moral
Philosophy: A thorough overview based on The Groundwork of the
Metaphysics of Morals and later works including the topics of good
will, duty, categorical and hypothetical imperatives, autonomy and kingdom
of ends by Robert Johnson in the Stanford Encyclopedia.
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