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Philosophy 302: Ethics
Kantian Ethics 

Abstract:  Kant's notion of the good will and the categorical imperative are very briefly sketched here. 

Introduction: An attraction to the Kantian doctrines of obligation is begun along the following lines:

(1) If the purpose of life were just to achieve happiness, then we would all seek pleasure and gratification and hope that it would lead to happiness. The problem is that happiness is not totally within our power to achieve; to a large extent, happiness is a matter of luck. Consequently, being happy and being good are two different things.

(2) If we are to avoid skepticism or even nihilism and our ethics is to be rationally based, it must be unconditional (i.e., have no exceptions) and be universal (i.e., be applicable to all human beings).

I.  The good will is the only good without qualification.

1. The good will is a will that acts for the sake of duty, as a "good-in-itself."



2. Kant emphasizes these important considerations about duty:



1. The class of actions in accordance with duty must be distinguished from the class of actions performed for the sake of duty.



2. Kant believes only actions performed for the sake of duty have moral worth. He seems to suggest that the greater one's disinclination to act for the sake of duty, the greater the moral worth of the action.



1. If one performs an action by inclination, then that action, on Kant's view, has no moral worth. Thus, morality necessarily involves a struggle against our emotional inclinations. The natural love of a parent for a son or daughter has no moral worth in the Kantian sense of the term.
   
   
2. The choices necessary to live a good life could involve actions which entail results incompatible with happiness.


3. Yet, as opposed to Kant, isn't Aristotle correct in his assessment of the formation of character through habit?  Isn't it better to do things from inclination?  
   
   E.g., suppose an acquaintance has to struggle with himself not to start rumors about you and is successful. Should his actions be valued more than an acquaintance who is fair to you by habit?



4. Or, in the same spirit, as Stace points out, "Isn't it better to do one's duty cheerfully than begrudgingly?"

II. Duty is the necessity of acting out of reverence for universal law. Moral value is essentially established by the intention of the person acting.

1. Maxim: a particular directive, a subjective principle of volition (a principle upon which you act). The nature of the maxim upon which an action is based is the manner in which intentions are expressed. So a maxim expresses a subjective motivation (i.e., a want, a wish, a desire) to act in a specific manner.



1. A maxim can be viewed implicitly as a conditional of the form, “If I am in circumstances C₁—C_n and I seek results R₁—R_n to occur then I do actions A₁—A_n,” although most are expressed much more simply than this.
   


2. An example of maxim that cannot be generalized is “If I am a student with a student loan and I seek to be financially better off, then I do not repay the loan.” (If this maxim were to be generalized for everyone, no student loans would be paid off, and, consequently, under those conditions, no student loans could be offered.)
   
   


3. Kant assumes that every voluntary act is based upon a maxim of one kind or another. 
   
   
   
2. Hypothetical Imperative: a conditional command expressing a maxim based on relative means and their related ends in the everyday world. The goal sought here is not based upon pure reason alone but rather upon practical reason. The goal is willed (rather than just wished for). 
   
   A maxim can be viewed implicitly as a conditional of the form, “If I am in circumstances C₁—C_n and I seek results R₁—R_n to occur, then I ought or should do actions A₁—A_n. ”
   


The result of a hypothetical imperative is not something unconditional, like, for example, a duty. Rather, e.g., "If you want to learn philosophy, then you ought to study hard." If an individual does not seek philosophical understanding, then the hypothetical imperative would simply not apply.

That is, a hypothetical imperative is dependent upon contingent circumstances or contingent abilities and is understood from a perspective of practical reason.


1. Problematic Hypothetical Imperative occurs when the result or goal is not necessarily willed, i.e., the willing is contingent on a skill or technique.
   
   


2. Assertoric Hypothetical Imperative: occurs when the result or goal is necessarily willed by all persons, or, what amounts to the same thing in the nonmoral sphere, when the result is essential to happiness. (Kant seems to indicate the necessity is natural necessity, and that would presuppose seeking happiness as an end would not be an act of freedom. Thus, to not seek happiness would seem to be a failure of practical reason and not be in accord with the essence of a rational being.)
   
   


3. Categorical Imperative: a rule stating what ought to be done based upon pure reason alone and not contingent upon sensible desires.  "I am never to act otherwise than to will that my maxim should become universal law."
   
   
   1. Moral rules, then, have no exceptions. Killing is always wrong. Lying is always wrong. The action described by the moral rule is necessary and independent of surrounding circumstances or purposes.
   
   
   
   2. Ethics, then, is not based on consequences, as it is, for example, in utilitarianism. The consequences of our decisions are beyond our control.
   
   
   
   3. Is there a problem with event-description in applying the Categorical Imperative? No two situations in our experience are exactly alike. How much of a difference in initial conditions makes a difference in the application of the Categorical Imperative? Kant's answer: contingent circumstances do not matter.
      
      

III. Practical Imperative: "Act to treat humanity, whether yourself or another, as an end-in-itself and never as a means."

1. Don't use people in order to obtain your goals or seek an edge or unfair advantage.



2. People have rights which would supersede, for example, the tyranny of the majority in utilitarianism.



3. Some difficulties in interpretation of the Kantian doctrine arise from these further questions: How far should respect for persons proceed? What if you are constantly used by other persons? Does the practical imperative imply that we should have no goals in dealing with other persons and ourselves?

Recommended Sources

Kant and Kantian Ethics: Extensive resources including multimedia, links to online works, papers, and bibliography compiled by Lawrence M. Hinman at the University of San Diego.
Kant's Ethics:  Reason and freedom, the duality of the human situation, duty, and the good will by Matt McCormick in  the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Kant's Moral Philosophy: A thorough overview based on The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals and later works including the topics of good will, duty, categorical and hypothetical imperatives, autonomy and kingdom of ends by Robert Johnson in the Stanford Encyclopedia.