| I. Three Basic Functions are generally noted: there is
perhaps nothing more subtle than language is, and nothing has as many different uses. |
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A. Without a doubt, identifying just these three
basic functions is an oversimplification, but an awareness of these functions is a good
introduction to the complexity of language . |
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B. The Functions of Language (i.e.,
its purpose; what it does; its uses) |
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1. Informative language function:
essentially, the communication of information. |
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a. The informative function affirms or denies
propositions, as in science. |
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b. This function is used to describe the world or
reason about it (e.g.., whether a state of affairs is true or false). |
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c. These sentences have a truth value; hence,
they are important for logic. |
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2. Expressive language function: reports
feelings or attitudes of the writer (or speaker), or of the subject, or evokes feelings in
the reader (or listener). |
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a. Poetry is one of the best examples, but much
of, perhaps most of, ordinary language discourse is the expression of emotions, feelings
or attitudes. |
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b. Two main aspects are generally noted: (1) to
evoke certain feelings and (2) to express feelings. |
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c. Expressive discourse, qua expressive
discourse, is best regarded as neither true or false. E.g., Shakespeare's King Lear's
lament, "Ripeness is all!" Even so, the nature of "fictional
statements" is an interesting area of inquiry. |
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3. Directive language function: language
used for the purpose of causing (or preventing) overt actions. |
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a. The directive function is most commonly found
in commands and requests. |
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b. Directive language is not normally considered
true or false (although a logic of commands have been developed). |
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c. Example: "Close the windows." |
| II. It is rare for discourse just to serve only one function;
even in a scientific treatise, discursive (logical) clarity is required, but, at the same
time, ease of expression often demands some expression of attitudes. |
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A. Most ordinary kinds of discourse is mixed.
Consider the following example. Suppose you want your listeners to contribute to the
Multiple Sclerosis Society. |
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B. There are several possible approaches: |
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1. Explain the recent breakthroughs in the
scientist's understanding of the disease (informative) and then ask for a contribution
(directive). |
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2. Make a moving appeal (expressive) and then ask
for a contribution (directive). |
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3. Command it (directive). |
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4. Explain the good results (informative), make a
moving appeal (expressive), and then ask (directive). |
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C. Several other uses of language deserve
mention. |
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1. The ceremonial--probably something
quite different from simply mixing the expressive and directive language functions. |
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2. Performative utterances: language which
performs the action it reports. For example, "I do" in the marriage ceremony and
the use of performative verbs such as "accept," "apologize,"
"congratulate," and "promise." These words denote an action which is
performed by using the verb in the first person. |
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3. Phatic language: "Elevator
talk" and street-corner conversations. Note the transition to behavior, as in
body language. |
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4. Most of the examples we have been talking
about are not merely of academic interest, even though we cannot take time out to trace
the far reaching consequences. For example in law, when a speaker is charged "with
inciting to riot," the prosecution must maintain he was using the directive language
function, while the defense will probably argue that the speaker was only expressing his feelings. |
| III. The Forms of Language (types of sentences) and
the dangers of identifying form with function in the use of language. |
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A. Much discourse serves all three functions--one
cannot always identify the form with the function. Consider this chart for the following
possibilities. |
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| Usual
Function /
Sentence Type
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Informative
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Expressive
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Directive
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| assertion /
declarative
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The room is cool. |
I had a nice time. |
I would like some coffee. |
| question /
interrogative
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But isn't this room 222A? |
Isn't that great? |
Don't you want to help me? |
| command /
imperative /
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Read pages 1-10 for the test. |
Have a nice day. |
Shut the windows. |
| exclamation /
exclamatory
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The universe is bounded1 |
I'm really glad! |
It's late! |
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B. The importance of the differentiation of
functions is the correct evaluation of a passage requires a knowledge of the functions
relevant to the situation. |
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1. A person who says to the waiter, "I would
like a cup of coffee," is not just reporting a psychological state of affairs.
I.e.,
it would be inappropriate for the waiter to respond with, "Speaking of things I would
like, how about a BMW?" |
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2. Other things being equal, a biology text is
predominately informative, a novel is predominately expressive, but a logic or mathematics
text is directive. |
