I. Three Basic Functions are generally noted: there is
perhaps nothing more subtle than language is, and nothing has as many different uses. |
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A. Without a doubt, identifying just these three
basic functions is an oversimplification, but an awareness of these functions is a good
introduction to the complexity of language . |
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B. The Functions of Language (i.e.,
its purpose; what it does; its uses) |
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1. Informative language function:
essentially, the communication of information. |
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a. The informative function affirms or denies
propositions, as in science or the statement of a fact.. |
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b. This function is used to describe the world or
reason about it (e.g.., whether a state of affairs has occurred
or not or what might have led to it). |
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c. These sentences have a truth value; that
is, the sentences are either true or false (recognizing, of course,
that we might not know what that truth value is). Hence,
they are important for logic. |
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2. Expressive language function: reports
feelings or attitudes of the writer (or speaker), or of the subject, or evokes feelings in
the reader (or listener). |
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a. Poetry and literature are among the best examples, but much
of, perhaps most of, ordinary language discourse is the expression of emotions, feelings
or attitudes. |
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b. Two main aspects of this function are generally noted: (1)
evoking certain feelings and (2) expressing feelings. |
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c. Expressive discourse, qua expressive
discourse, is best regarded as neither true or false. E.g., Shakespeare's King Lear's
lament, "Ripeness is all!" or Dickens' "It was the best
of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom; it was
the age of foolishness…" Even so, the "logic" of "fictional
statements" is an interesting area of inquiry. |
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3. Directive language function: language
used for the purpose of causing (or preventing) overt action. |
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a. The directive function is most commonly found
in commands and requests. |
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b. Directive language is not normally considered
true or false (although various logics of commands have been developed). |
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c. Example of this function: "Close the windows."
The sentence "You're smoking in a nonsmoking area,"
although declarative, can be used to mean "Do not smoke in this
area." |
II. It is rare for discourse just to serve only one function;
even in a scientific treatise, discursive (logical) clarity is required, but, at the same
time, ease of expression often demands some presentation of attitude or
feeling—otherwise the work might be dull.. |
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A. Most ordinary kinds of discourse is mixed.
Consider the following example. Suppose you want your listeners to contribute to the
Multiple Sclerosis Society. |
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B. There are several possible approaches: |
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1. Explain the recent breakthroughs in the
scientist's understanding of the disease (informative) and then ask for a contribution
(directive). |
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2. Make a moving appeal (expressive) and then ask
for a contribution (directive). |
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3. Command it (directive). |
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4. Explain the good results (informative), make a
moving appeal (expressive), and then ask (directive). |
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5. Generally speaking, step 3 (specifically
stating that which is desired as outcome) is the least effective
means. Usually, just making a moving appeal is the most
effective for the general population; explaining the recent research
is the most effective for an educated audience. Asking for the
contribution is often not necessary, since the prospective contributor
surmises this step. |
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C. Several other uses of language deserve
mention. |
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1. The ceremonial--(also ritual
language use) probably something
quite different from simply mixing the expressive and directive language
functions because performative aspects are included as well.
Example: "Dearly beloved, we are gathered here together to
witness the holy matrimony of …." |
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2. Performative utterances: language which
performs the action it reports. For example, "I do" in the marriage ceremony and
the use of performative verbs such as "accept," "apologize,"
"congratulate," and "promise." These words denote an action which is
performed by using the verb in the first person—nothing more need be
done to accomplish the action. |
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3. Phatic language: "Elevator
talk" and street-corner conversations accomplishing a social task. Note the
subtle transition from vocal behavior to body language from saying for
example, "Hi" or "How are you?" to a nod or a
wave of the hand.
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4. Most of the examples we have been talking
about are not merely of academic interest, even though we cannot take time out to trace
the far reaching consequences. (E.g., in law, when a speaker is charged "with
inciting to riot," the prosecution must maintain he was using the directive language
function, while the defense will probably argue that the speaker was only expressing his
feelings. Also, performative utterances are not normally subject to
hearsay rules since they imply an action taken.) |
III. The Forms of Language (types of sentences) and
the dangers of identifying form with function in the use of language. |
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A. Much discourse serves all three functions--one
cannot always identify the form with the function. Consider this chart for the following
possibilities. But note that context often determines the purpose of an
utterance. "The room is cool" might be used in
different contexts as informative (an observation), expressive (how
one feels at the moment), or directive (to turn on the heat). |
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Usual
Function /
Sentence Type
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Informative
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Expressive
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Directive
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assertion /
declarative
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The room is cool. |
I had a nice time. |
I would like some coffee. |
question /
interrogative
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But isn't this room 222A? |
Isn't that great? |
Don't you want to help me? |
command /
imperative /
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Read pages 1-10 for the test. |
Have a nice day. |
Shut the windows. |
exclamation /
exclamatory
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The universe is bounded! |
I'm really glad! |
It's late! |
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B. The importance of the differentiation of
functions is shown by recognizing that the correct evaluation of a passage requires a knowledge of the functions
relevant to the situational context. |
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1. A person who says to the waiter, "I would
like a cup of coffee," is not just reporting a psychological state of affairs.
I.e.,
it would be inappropriate for the waiter to respond with, "Speaking of things
one would
like, I'd rather have a BMW." |
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2. Other things being equal, a biology text is
predominately informative, a novel is predominately expressive, but a logic or mathematics
text is mostly directive. |